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Disaster Management in Haiti Earthquake
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Disaster Management in Haiti Earthquake
Introduction
On January 12th, 2010, Haiti experienced one of the most catastrophic earthquakes that affected more than three million people (Levie, Burke, & Lannon, 2017). This calamity resulted in more than 200,000 fatalities and injured another 300,000 individuals (Levie, Burke, & Lannon, 2017). Statistics also show that it displaced another 1.5 million individuals who had to live in camps across and outside the country (Levie, Burke, & Lannon, 2017). The earthquake also affected most of the healthcare providers and clinical settings, making it difficult for people to receive the necessary care immediately. This situation further resulted in the increased loss of life.
It was difficult for Haiti to mitigate the impact of the earthquake independently effectively. Global organizations and governments went in to provide the required humanitarian support and to ensure its successful recovery from this catastrophe. Typically, when a country or a community does not have the capacity to respond adequately or to recover from a disaster, the International Federation plays a primary role in providing the necessary support. The organization utilizes its resources, assets, and international and regional networks to assist the affected communities. It also provides support to the National Red Cross and Red Crescent Society, which often begins on humanitarian efforts as soon as the crisis occurs. The International Federation also functions to advocate for the affected country to governments, donors, and international organizations to guarantee accountability and better practice in disaster management. The role of the International Federation in disaster management was evident in the aftermath of the Haiti earthquake, mainly as it related to the dignity of the affected population.
Disaster management, by definition, involves the management and organization of responsibilities and resources required in humanitarian efforts during an emergency. More specifically, it consists of the response, preparedness, and recovery efforts necessary to reduce the impact of a disaster. In the case of a calamity, it is important to incorporate disaster management as it provides insight into how to mitigate the impacts effectively. Kirschenbaum (2019) also adds that disaster management requires the development of common goals and values to encourage the implementation of an effective plan that addresses the imminent and long-term challenges. It also helps communities to successfully respond to a crisis in a way that reduces the loss of life, encourages political stability, and preserves people’s property. The disaster management efforts implemented after the Haiti earthquake will be discussed in addition to the disaster management cycle and approaches incorporated. The associated logistics will also be outlined as well as the politics and capacity surrounding this catastrophe and the consequential efforts.
Overview of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake
On January 12th 2010, Haiti experienced an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.0 Mw with its epicenter at the island of Hispaniola, which is close to the town of Léogâne. Léogâne is approximately 16 miles from the country’s capital of Port-au-Prince, which had a population of approximately 2.6 million people residing in the metropolitan area (Kligerman, Walmer, & Bereknyei Merrell, 2017). On January 20th the country recorded more than 50 aftershocks after the initial earthquake, measuring at least 4.5, with the highest one being a 5.9 temblor (Kligerman, Walmer, & Bereknyei Merrell, 2017). This resulted in the collapse of several buildings that had already been damaged by the initial quake and more than 200,000 deaths. Statistics from the government indicated that approximately 20,000 commercial enterprises were severely damaged in addition to more than 250,000 residences, thereby resulting in the displacement of more than 1.5 million people (Kligerman, Walmer, & Bereknyei Merrell, 2017). Another factor that contributed to the high death toll was the country’s national debt and poor housing conditions.
Briggs (2016) notes that more than 70% of the population lived below the poverty line, an aspect that made it difficult for them to afford suitable living conditions. In general, the earthquake impacted some of the largest cities, including Jacmel and Port-au-Prince, in addition to other surrounding regions. Prominent buildings and structures were destroyed, such as the main jail, the main Cathedral, United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti, and the National Assembly Building. Other social infrastructures, including the transport and communication networks, the electrical networks, and social amenities, were also damaged. Thisinhibited the prompt supply of the needed rescue efforts. Several countries and international organizations provided their support to Haiti by providing the necessary resources, including funds and human resources. The country was particularly in need of medical personnel since many healthcare facilities had desbeen destroyed. Most of the relief trucwas provided through air transport, which brought about the problem of traffic congestion. However, most of the emphasis tiwas placed on sanitation efforts, medical care, and the provision of supplies.
In the long-term, the earthquake affected Haiti’s economic stability as most of its resources had to onbe reallocated towards rebuilding the country. By October 2010, there was a cholera outbreak in the county potentially brought about by unsanitary living conditions. More than 3,000 people lost their lives before the end of that year due to cholera (Briggs, 2016). Recovery efforts were still progressive, although more than 1 million people lived in displacement camps by 2011. Unfortunately, amidst its recovery, Haiti encountered two Hurricanes (Hurricane Sandy and Hurricane Isaac) in 2012. These hurricanes which further affected the country’s recovery, and more than 8,000 people died from cholera (Kligerman, Barry, Walmer, & Bendavid, 2015). Despite these setbacks, Haiti is currently on a positive direction towards recovery although there is still a need for more effort and commitment from its government.
Disaster Management Cycle
The overall goal of disaster management is to minimize or prevent potential losses from calamities, guarantee appropriate and prompt support to affected victims, and ensure effective recovery within a suitable timeline. The disaster management cycle highlights the progressive process used by organizations to plan for disasters and to reduce their impact. It also outlines the measures implemented to guarantee recovery when the disaster occurs (Kirschenbaum, 2019). At each point of the cycle, there are appropriate actions that contribute to better preparedness, thereby reducing the community’s susceptibility to further detriment at the next step of the cycle. Holistically, the disaster management cycle also encompasses the development of public policies designed to protect the people and to mitigate the effects of disasters on the community, infrastructure, and property. The four phases of the cycle include mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery (Kirschenbaum, 2019).
The first two phases typically involve making the necessary improvements to the community while anticipating a disaster. In this instance, the primary issues of concern are the developmental considerations, which contribute to how a disaster is mitigated or how well the community is prepared. Once the disaster occurs, the humanitarian actors come into play by providing immediate response and overseeing actions towards long-term recovery. Kirschenbaum (2019) notes that in many cases, the four phases do not occur in isolation. Instead, they often overlap, and it can take a long time to complete one phase based on the gravity of the disaster.
Mitigation
This is the first phase of the cycle, and it involves reducing the seriousness or the severity of the disaster. Mitigation activities are designed to minimize or ultimately eliminate the possibility of disaster occurrence. They also reduce the associated effects of unpredictable or unavoidable disasters. Some of the mitigation measures implemented include building use regulations, land use management, public awareness, and preventive healthcare. It is also important to incorporate building codes and to conducted vulnerability analyses, particularly in areas susceptible to natural disasters. Public education plays an essential role in creating awareness about a disaster, thereby equipping the community with the information and skills they would require to guarantee their safety when a disaster occurs.
Mitigation is dependent on how effective measures are incorporated in the development planning on both the national and regional levels. There is a need to have readily available information on disasters, countermeasures, and involved emergency risks. Public policies should be structured to highlight the causes of disasters, and they outline the measures implemented to reduce their impact on society. Haiti has experienced several calamities over the years, including a previous earthquake in 1842, a tsunami in 1946, and frequent cyclones (Levie, Burke & Lannon, 2017). As such, it would be expected that there were effective measures implemented to protect the public. However, despite the measures in place, Haiti is among the poorest countries in the world, and it does not have the necessary resources required to mitigate the impacts of an earthquake effectively. Haiti has established emergency services to help its population in case of a crisis, but these services were not sufficient to mitigate the impact of the 2010 earthquake.
Preparedness
The primary purpose of emergency preparedness is to ensure that the community is satisfactorily ready to respond to any emergencies. This is achieved through preparedness programs designed to strengthen the managerial and technical competencies of the associated communities and organizations. Chikoto-Schultz, Manson, Amiri, & Xiao (2019) describe the implemented measures as logistical readiness required to address disasters accordingly. Organizations can enhance these measures through the development of short-term and long-term strategies, creating response mechanisms, and educating the public. It is also important to develop early warning systems to alert the meteorological department and the public about any impending disasters. The government and other associated organizations should also keep reserves of food, water, medications, and other equipment that would prove to be of importance in case of a catastrophe.
The respective authorities often develop a plan to preserve life and reduce disaster damage during this phase of the cycle. The governments also ensure that the necessary disaster response operations are in place and that the respective personnel undergoes the necessary training to ensure their effectiveness in case of a disaster. It is also important to develop preparedness plans which outline the responsibilities of each party and the training required. Countries should also have warning systems that notify the authorities of a potential calamity, thereby being able to minimize their impact. Other measures include resource inventories, emergency personnel contacts, and mutual aid agreements. However, preparedness measures are dependent on the country’s financial capabilities and its development plans. They also require having sufficient information on potential hazards affecting the area and the necessary countermeasures that should be incorporated.
One aspect that failed in the disaster management of the Haiti earthquake was a lack of emergency communication systems. The earthquake destroyed the country’s primary communication network, making it difficult for people to share information regarding rescue missions and emergency response. Additionally, many organizations moved in to help with the rescue, and they did not have a suitable way of communicating a suitable plan. This resulted in increased air traffic congestion, an aspect that further inhibited emergency actions. Being a poverty-stricken country, Haiti did not have enough reserves to help its population, although the International Federation succeeded in raising the necessary funds and personnel to execute immediate action. The intensity of the earthquake also affected the transportation of resources to the affected parties. The country was also not prepared to deal with the significant number of fatalities. More than 200,000 people died, and there was no strategy on how to bury them accordingly in order to reduce the development of other diseases and other fatalities.
Response
The primary goal of emergency response is to ensure the provision of immediate assistance after a disaster, thereby reducing fatalities and improving the health of the community. Emergency response, if well-executed, also helps to improve the morale of the population and encourages quicker recovery. This assistance varies significantly based on the type of disaster and the needs of the community. The main support efforts include relocating the affected population and providing their basic needs (food, shelter, and clothing). Sheltering structures such in camps could be erected to accommodate the displaced people and to ensure that they have access to the necessary resource required to guarantee their sustainability. At this phase, the government could also focus on repairing damaged infrastructure if necessary or rebuilding from scratch. The main issue of concern, however, is guaranteeing that the affected people have their basic needs before developing more long-term and sustainable solutions. Humanitarian organizations play a key role at this stage by sourcing for resources from other countries and ensuring that they reach the population in need.
During the Haiti earthquake, the United Nations appealed to the rest of the world for donations and aid. The Red Cross and Red Crescent Community spearheaded the response efforts by coordinating how the food was distributed and the establishment of a semi-permanent settlement for the internally displaced people. The Dominican Republic initiated the first response by allocating cooks, medical personnel, and food to the affected population. Other countries and organizations facilitated air transportation, which was critical in the supply process and in assisting with the rescue mission. The United States also provided temporary residence to at least 100,000 Haitians for up to 18 months (Al-Ali & Abu Ibaid, 2015). The government permitted the adoption of at least 400 children in the Netherlands, Canada, and the United States as a measure towards providing them with stability. In total, more than $500 million was contributed to help with the response and recovery of Haiti after the catastrophe (Medina, 2016).
Recovery
One the emergency has been controlled, the affected population can participate in the restoration of their lives actively. The transition between response to recovery not definite, and it depends on the available resources and the impact of the calamity on the population. The government typically starts to consider how they could mitigate the effects of such disasters in the future and how they can enhance the country’s protection. This phase also involves evaluating the mitigation and preparedness plans, assessing where they failed, and implementing measures to reduce future vulnerability. If well implemented, the transition from recovery to sustainable development should be easy and efficient.
Alim, Kawabata, & Nakazawa (2015) also notes that it is important to continue with recovery activities to the point of achieving normalcy or overall improvement. In the short-term, recovery measures should aim at the reconstruction of entrepreneurial opportunities and residences to ensure that surviving citizens can contribute to economic development. This involves creating temporary housing and reconstructing economic enterprises. The government should also focus on providing health and safety education to reduce the impacts of associated diseases and further fatalities. It should also conduct an economic impact study that will guide reconstruction efforts and help in ensuring long-term sustainability. It is also vital to provide counseling services for the population to address mental health problems in addition to other support systems. The availability of information services and resources is also integral in data collection that could help in documenting previous mistakes and the suitable solution, and to guide the reconstruction efforts.
In Haiti, recovery efforts are anticipated to take more than eight years to achieve some form of normalcy. This was in part due to further aggravation by three hurricanes in 2015 and 2016, which further destroyed property and contributed to further fatalities. Additionally, the country experienced a cholera outbreak in 2016, which claimed the lives of more than 8,000 people. One year after the earthquake, recovery efforts came to a standstill due to poor governance. Kligerman, Walmer, and Bereknyei Merrell (2017) point out that only 15% of the greatly needed temporary houses had been constructed, and the rubble had not been cleared. It was difficult to provide temporary housing until the rubble was cleared, and some donor countries had not honored their pledges. By 2012, more than 500,000 Haitians were still homeless, and others had longer patient stays in mobile clinics due to the harsh living conditions. Sanitation was poor in the displacement camps, a factor that contributed to frequent cholera outbreaks between 2010 and 2016. Currently, more than 1 million people still require humanitarian aid to survive, and Kligerman, Walmer, and Bereknyei Merrell (2017) point out that there is still a long way for the country before they achieve full recovery.
Disaster Management Models
Essentially, disaster management centers on minimizing the hazards and reducing susceptibility to natural disasters. However, it can be difficult for authorities to anticipate or reduce the impact of a natural calamity. Consequently, it is necessary to focus on reducing the impacts of these disasters by identifying the country’s vulnerabilities and addressing them accordingly. To achieve this, the government should consider using a disaster management model, which outlines the primary areas of concern and helps to strategize effective solutions. Over the years, there have been several models that have been proposed in an effort to understand disaster, but the main model is the Pressure and Release (PAR) model. Yorke, Zhan, Lu, & Hagelman (2015) note that the PAR model is essential in understanding how different factors of disaster and vulnerability interact. To effectively understand vulnerability, it is important to determine the underlying cause and determine why a particular group of the population is affected.
Yorke et al. (2015) describe vulnerability as the factors of a group or an individual that determine their ability to anticipate, prepare, resist, and recover from a disaster. Basically, vulnerability highlights the potential for loss, making it a critical factor in determining how a group functions before, during, and after a disaster. Susceptibility is also dependent on time, and it can be measured base on the level of damage that the disaster causes to the community’s livelihoods. Therefore, to completely understand disaster management, it is vital to incorporate a model that highlights vulnerability as a core factor. The PAR model, as proposed by Blaikie, Cannon, Davis, and Wisner (1994) was developed to lessen exposure, improve the community’s coping capacity, and enhance a country’s recovery potential through the use of both public and private efforts.
Application of the PAR Model on the Haiti Earthquake
By applying the PAR model, it is possible to monitor the progression of the disaster in Haiti, its vulnerabilities, and the risk is presented to the population. While the main impact was the earthquake, there were other secondary impacts resulting from this crisis. The secondary impacts include displacement, homelessness, and the cholera epidemic, which affected at least half a million people and led to more than 8000 fatalities (Yorke et al., 2015). It is also important to consider the tertiary impacts in this case, the main one being gender-based violence against women and children. Some UN peacekeepers were also attacked under the suspicion of introducing cholera to Haiti. Secondary data sources identified the root causes, the dynamic pressures, and unsafe conditions that further accelerated Haiti’s vulnerability.
Root Causes
The primary root cause for the vulnerability was the country’s economic status. Haiti is ranked among the poorest countries in the world, with significantly large debts to other countries, including France and the United States. Historically, Haiti was a French colony with significant value as it produced 60% of coffee and 40% of the sugar used in Europe (Yorke et al., 2015). There was increased use of slavery, particularly in the agricultural farms, an aspect that resulted in significant oppression. In 1791, the Haitian slaves rebelled and managed to defeat Napoleon’s armies, and the country gained its independence in 1804. However, between the early 19th century and the early 20th century, Haiti became heavily indebted to Germany, the U.S., and France (Yorke et al., 2015). This was in an effort to gain diplomatic recognition from France after the slave rebellion. In its role, the U.S. sought to ensure that Haiti complied with its payment plan by occupying parts of Haiti and using force. In retaliation, Haitian leaders focused on personal plunder rather than developing their country. The country’s debts continue to affect its development to this day. By 2012, at least 80% of Haiti’s population lived below the poverty line, whereas more than 50% of them lived on less than $1 per day. The unemployment rate in the country is significantly high, at 45% (Yorke et al., 2015).
It is also important to consider the geological factors and the seismic activities in the region. Over the years, Haiti has experienced several earthquakes and other associated calamities, including tsunamis, hurricanes, and cyclones. Most of the residential houses were constructed on the sedimentary plains in the coastal parts of the country. When the surface seismic waves crossed, they led to the collapse and destruction of these properties. The affected Port-au-Prince also lied in the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone, which had experienced several earthquakes over the years. Geologists had recommended that further studies be conducted in the area to assess its vulnerability and to determine if effective measures could be implemented to relocate the population before an earthquake had occurred. However, such studies were not carried out before the 2010 earthquake.
Dynamic Pressures
Before the earthquake, there were limited to no urban planning efforts implemented in Port-au-Prince. These measures would have been integral in developing settlement plans and regulating rural-to-urban migration. The city’s population was increasing exponentially as more people relocated from the rural regions in search of employment and better living standards. Additionally, the available housing structures were of poor condition, and many owners did not consider the building code standards when constructing. Other residents opted for alternative living situations such as slums where there were poor sanitation and other health risks. Haiti also experienced increased soil degradation and deforestation as a result of the population pressure and the need to expand sugar plantations. The government, in its capacity, lacked the necessary resources to implement effective measures aimed at mitigating the negative impacts of this ecological disaster (Vitoriano et al., 2015). The local residents depended on subsistence farming for their survival, an aspect that led to over-farming. They also cut down the trees to make charcoal as they could not afford other forms of fuel. In combination, these factors exerted more pressure on the environment, and there were no barriers to mitigate the impact of the earthquake.
Unsafe conditions
There were too many illegal housings, and the government did not enforce regulations on housing development, particularly along the flood plains and on the hillside. As more people moved into the cities, investors constructed more buildings in illegal regions, thereby leaving citizens vulnerable to natural disasters. Additionally, since many people live below the poverty line, they have limited options regarding their choice of material and location for construction. The building methods are also of poor quality, thereby resulting in further destruction. With regard to infrastructure, the roads in Haiti were poorly constructed, and many of them are currently in very poor conditions. Kligerman et al. (2015) note that 80% of the country’s tarmacked roads are in need of reconstruction or repair. As a result, when the earthquake occurred, there was limited access to the affected population, and the government invested in increased operating costs. Proper sanitation is another condition that further left the population vulnerable to the secondary impacts of the earthquake. Kligerman et al. (2015) also explain that at least 60% of the population did not have access to clean water, and they lived in unsanitary conditions. A part of the population still had limited access to their basic amenities, and this was still the case in 2012 after the earthquake had occurred.
Proposed Solutions to the Unsafe Conditions
Under the PAR model, it is critical to incorporate risk reduction as a measure towards reducing vulnerability. This involves addressing the issues resulting from the root causes and reducing the dynamic pressures. From a structural perspective, it would be important for Haiti to consider revising its current Seismic Building Code and develop an accurate map of where development can occur. Current buildings should also be evaluated to ensure that they meet the required standards. Building constructors and engineers should undergo training where they can learn best practices and oversee the construction of safer accommodations. The government should also invest in reconstructing and repairing its road network. Non-structural considerations include improving urban planning approaches using a bottom-up approach and effective land-use planning. Local residents should also undergo disaster preparedness training at all educational levels.
Conclusion
Disaster management plays an integral role in mitigating the impacts of a disaster and ensuring the safety of the population. The 2010 Haiti earthquake presents a suitable case study of how disaster management can be implemented, the associated successes, and the potential failures. The disaster management cycle outlines four phases involved in the occurrence of a disaster. In the mitigation phase, the government implements effective measures to reduce the impacts of the disaster. The preparedness phase involves identifying potential vulnerabilities and addressing them promptly. It also involves creating awareness in the community and providing training on how individuals can protect themselves. The response phase takes place after the occurrence of a disaster, and it primarily involves taking action to reduce the impact of the calamity. The final phase is recovery, which is whereby the population begins to reconstruct and restructure itself after a disaster. The PAR model of disaster management focuses on the vulnerability of a country to a catastrophe, making it easier to identify suitable solutions. In Haiti, the poverty levels, poor infrastructure, and seismic activity contributed to the significant impact of the earthquake. In the future, effective preparedness, improving current infrastructure, and proper planning could help in mitigating these impacts.
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